"מבריק... מובטח כי יגרום לכם לחשוב מחדש על דעותיכם ועל ההחלטות החשובות ביותר שלכם"
דניאל כהנמן, זוכה פרס נובל לכלכלה
הפסיכולוג הנודע אדם גרנט בוחן את האמנות ההכרחית של חשיבה-מחדש: ללמוד איך להטיל ספק בדעותינו ואיך לפקוח את עיניהם של אחרים, מה שיעזור לנו להצטיין בעבודה ולחיות את חיינו בתבונה.
חוכמה נתפסת לעתים קרובות כיכולת לחשוב וללמוד, אבל בעולם משתנה במהירות ישנן מיומנויות נוספות שיכולות להיות חשובות אפילו יותר: היכולת להטיל ספק בדעותינו, ולחשוב מחדש.
אנחנו מקשיבים לדעות שנותנות לנו תחושה טובה במקום לרעיונות שמכריחים אותנו להתאמץ לחשוב. אנחנו רואים בחילוקי דעות איוּם על האגו שלנו במקום הזדמנות ללמוד. אנחנו מקיפים את עצמנו באנשים שמסכימים עם מסקנותינו, במקום לדבוק באלה שמאתגרים את תהליך החשיבה שלנו. אנחנו חושבים יותר מדי כמו מטיפים שמגינים על אמונותיהם המקודשות, כמו תובעים בבית משפט שמוכיחים שהצד השני טועה וכמו פוליטיקאים שמבקשים להשיג תמיכה – ומעט מדי כמו מדענים המחפשים את האמת.
והאמת היא שקדמה אינה אפשרית ללא שינוי, ומי שלא יכול לשנות את דעתו, לעיתים לא יוכל לשנות דבר.
גרנט קבע לעצמו עיקרון לטעון טיעונים כאילו הוא צודק, אבל להקשיב כאילו הוא טועה. באמצעות רעיונות נועזים, סיפורים מלאי השראה, ומחקרים עדכניים תחשבו שוב מראה לנו שחשיבה-מחדש היא הלך רוח ומיומנות שאפשר ללמד, וגרנט מסביר איך לפתח את התכונות הדרושות לשם כך. אתם תלמדו איך מוזיקאי שחור משכנע גזענים לבנים לזנוח את השנאה, איך משכנעים מתנגדי חיסונים לחסן את ילדיהם, איך הסופר עצמו שכנע אוהדי ינקיז לעודד את יריבתם המושבעת הרד סוקס ומה אפשר ללמוד מילדה בת שמונה, ישראלית מחיפה ואלופת דיבייטינג עולמית. אתם תראו כיצד האנשים המצליחים בעולם הם אלה שערוכים לחשוב מחדש, שוב ושוב על עמדתם על בסיס עובדות ושינויים, וכיצד מנהלים שמודים שאינם יודעים דבר מה ומבקשים משובים ביקורתיים, הם אלה שמצליחים לבנות ולהוביל צוותים יצירתיים וחדשניים יותר.
תחשבו שוב מגלה שאנחנו לא חייבים להאמין בכל דבר שאנחנו חושבים או להפנים כל רגש שאנחנו מרגישים. הספר הוא הזמנה להרפות מדעות שכבר אינן משרתות אותנו היטב, לשאוב הנאה גם מלטעות, להעדיף גמישות מחשבתית על פני עקביות מטופשת, ולקבל החלטות טובות ונכונות יותר לגבי חיינו. אם ידע הוא כוח, לדעת מה איננו יודעים – זוהי חוכמה.
"הספר משכנע ביותר בצורך לחשוב מחדש על הדברים שאנחנו כבר יודעים, וזה לא רק לקח יעיל אלא הכרחי" – פייננשל טיימס
"הספר מספק עצות נבונות על הצורך לקעקע הנחות יסוד ולפתוח את עצמנו לסקרנות ולענווה" – וושינגטון פוסט
אדם גרנט הוא פסיכולוג ארגוני באוניברסיטת וורטון, ושבע שנים ברציפות דורג בה כמרצה הטוב ביותר. הוא אחד הדוברים האהודים ביותר ב"טד", ספריו נמכרו במיליוני עותקים, הרצאותיו נצפו יותר מ-25 מיליון פעמים, והפודקאסט שלו – WorkLife with Adam Grant – הגיע לרשימת הפודקאסטים המואזנים ביותר. המחקר פורץ הדרך שלו עורר באנשים השראה לחשוב מחדש על הנחות בסיסיות הנוגעות למוטיבציה, נדיבות ויצירתיות. גרנט הוכתר כאחד מעשרת ההוגים המשפיעים ביותר בתחום הניהול וזכה בפרסים יוקרתיים של איגוד הפסיכולוגים האמריקאי והקרן הלאומית למדע על הישגיו במחקר. הוא בעל תואר ראשון מאוניברסיטת הרווארד ותואר שלישי מאוניברסיטת מישיגן.
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11, 2008, www.economist.com/briefing/2008/12/11/cracks‑in‑thecrust;
Heather Farmbrough, “How Iceland’s Banking Collapse Created
an Opportunity,” Forbes, December 23, 2019, www.forbes.com/sites/
heatherfarmbrough/2019/12/23/how-icelands-banking-collapse-cr
eated‑an‑opportunity/#72693f035e97; “25 People to Blame for the
Financial Crisis,” Time, February 10, 2009, content.time.com/time/
specials/pack ages/article/0,28804,1877351_ 1877350_ 1877340,00.
html; John L. Campbell and John A. Hall, The Paradox of Vulnerability:
States, Nationalism & the Financial Crisis (Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2017); Robert H. Wade and Silla Sigurgeirsdottir,
“Iceland’s
Meltdown: The Rise and Fall of International Banking in
the North Atlantic,” Brazilian
Journal of Political Economy 31 (2011):
684–97; Report of the Special Investigation Commission, April 12,
2010, www.rna.is/eldri-nefndir/addragandi‑og‑orsakir-falls-islenskubankanna-
2008/skyrsla-nefndarinnar/english; Daniel Chartier, The
End of Iceland’s
Innocence: The Image of Iceland in the Foreign Media
during the Financial Crisis (Ottawa, ON: University of Ottawa Press,
2011); “Excerpts: Iceland’s Oddsson,” Wall Street Journal, October
17, 2008, www.wsj.com/articles/SB122418335729241577; Geir
Times, April 12, 2010, www.ft.com/content/82bb2296-4637-11df-
8769-00144feab49a; “Report on Iceland’s Banking
Collapse Blasts
Ex‑Officials,” Wall Street Journal, April 13, 2010, www.wsj.com/arti
cles/SB10001424052702303828304575179722049591754.
272 | תחשבו שוב / אדם גרנט
27 Tim Urban, “The Thinking Ladder,” Wait but Why (blog), September
27, 2019, waitbutwhy.com/2019/09/thinking-ladder.html.
28 Dov Eden, “Means Efficacy:
External Sources of General and
Specific Subjective Efficacy,” in Work Motivation
in the Context of
a Globalizing Economy, ed. Miriam Erez, Uwe Kleinbeck, and Henk
Thierry (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2001); Dov Eden et al., “Augmenting
Means Efficacy to Boost Performance: Two Field Experiments,”
Journal of Management 36 (2008): 687–713.
29 Personal interview with Sara Blakely, September 12, 2019; see also
Clare O’Connor, “How Sara Blakely of Spanx Turned $5,000 into $1
Billion,” Forbes, March 26, 2012, www.forbes.com/global/2012/0326/
billionaires‑12‑feature-united-states-spanx-sara-blakely-americanbooty.
html; “How Spanx Got Started,” Inc., January 20, 2012, www.
inc.com/sara-blakely/how-sara-blakley-started-spanx.html.
30 Tenelle Porter, “The Benefits of Admitting When You Don’t Know,”
Behavioral Scientist, April 30, 2018, behavioralscientist.org/thebenefits‑of‑admitting-
when-you-dont-know.
31 Thomas Gatzka and Benedikt Hell, “Openness and Post-
Secondary
Academic Performance: A Meta-analysis of Facet-, Aspect-, and
Dimension-Level Correlations,” Journal of Educational Psychology
110 (2018): 355–77.
32 Tenelle Porter et al., “Intellectual Humility Predicts Mastery Behaviors
When Learning,” Learning and Individual Differences 80 (2020):
101888.
33 Bradley P. Owens, Michael D. Johnson, and Terence R. Mitchell,
“Expressed Humility in Organizations: Implications for Performance,
Teams, and Leadership,” Organization Science 24 (2013): 1517–38.
34 Mark R. Leary et al., “Cognitive and Interpersonal
Features of
Intellectual Humility,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 43
(2017): 793–813.
הערות | 273
35 Samantha A. Deffler, Mark R. Leary, and Rick H. Hoyle, “Knowing
What You Know: Intellectual Humility and Judgments of Recognition
Memory,” Personality and Individual Differences 96 (2016): 255–59.
36 Bradley P. Owens, Angela S. Wallace, and David A. Waldman, “Leader
Narcissism and Follower Outcomes: The Counterbalancing Effect
of Leader Humility,” Journal of Applied Psychology 100 (2015):
1203–13; Hongyu Zhang et al., “CEO Humility, Narcissism and
Firm Innovation: A Paradox Perspective on CEO Traits,” Leadership
Quarterly 28 (2017): 585–604.
37 Personal interview with Halla Tómasdóttir, February 27, 2019.
38 Jaruwan Sakulku, “The Impostor Phenomenon,” International Journal
of Behavioral Science 6 (2011): 75–97.
39 Dena M. Bravata et al., “Prevalence, Predictors, and Treatment of
Impostor Syndrome: A Systematic Review,” Journal of General
Internal Medicine 35 (2020): 1252–75.
40 Basima Tewfik, “Workplace Impostor Thoughts: Theoretical
Conceptualization, Construct Measurement, and Relationships with
Work-Related Outcomes,” Publicly Accessible Penn Dissertations
(2019): 3603.
41 Adam M. Grant and Amy Wrzesniewski, “I Won’t Let You Down . . .
or Will I? Core Self-Evaluations, Other-Orientation, Anticipated Guilt
and Gratitude, and Job Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology
95 (2010): 108–21.
42 See Christine L. Porath and Thomas S. Bateman, “Self-Regulation:
From Goal Orientation to Job Performance,” Journal of Applied
Psychology 91 (2006): 185–92; Samir Nurmohamed, “The
Underdog Effect: When Low Expectations Increase Performance,”
Academy of Management Journal (July 26, 2020), doi.org/10.5465/
amj.2017.0181.
43 See Albert Bandura and Edwin A. Locke, “Negative Self-Efficacy and
274 | תחשבו שוב / אדם גרנט
Goal Effects Revisited,” Journal of Applied Psychology 88 (2003):
87–99.
44 Elizabeth J. Krumrei-Mancuso et al., “Links between Intellectual
Humility and Acquiring Knowledge,” Journal of Positive Psychology
15 (2020): 155–70.
45 Danielle V. Tussing, “Hesitant at the Helm: The Effectiveness-
Emergence Paradox of Reluctance to Lead” (Ph.D. diss., University
of Pennsylvania, 2018).
46 Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, “Building a Practically Useful
Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35‑Year Odyssey,”
American Psychologist
57 (2002): 705–17; M. Travis Maynard et al.,
“Modeling Time-Lagged Psychological Empowerment-Performance
Relationships,” Journal of Applied Psychology 99 (2014): 1244–53;
Dana H. Lindsley, Daniel J. Brass, and James B. Thomas, “Efficacy-
Performance Spirals: A Multilevel Perspective,” Academy of
Management Review 20 (1995): 645–78.
הערות פרק 3
1 Frasier, season 2, episode 12, “Roz in the Doghouse,” January 3, 1995,
NBC.
2 Henry A. Murray, “Studies of Stressful Interpersonal Disputations,”
American Psychologist 18 (1963): 28–36.
3 Richard G. Adams, “Unabomber,” The Atlantic, September 2000,
“Letters,” www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2000/09/letters/37
8379.
4 Alston Chase, A Mind for Murder: The Education of the Unabomber
and the Origins of Modern Terrorism (New York: W. W. Norton,
2004).
5 Murray S. Davis, “That’s Interesting!: Toward a Phenomenology
of
Sociology and a Sociology of Phenomenology,” Philosophy of Social
Science 1 (1971): 309–44.
הערות | 275
6 Sarah T. Stewart, “Where Did the Moon Come From? A New Theory,”
TED Talks, February 2019, www.ted.com/talks/sarah_ t_ stewart_
where_ did_ the_ moon_ come_ from_ a_ new_ theory.
7 Lesley Evans Ogden, “The Tusks of Narwhals Are Actually
Teeth
That Are Inside-Out,” BBC, October 26, 2015, www.bbc.com/earth/
story/20151026-the-tusks‑of‑narwhals-are-actually-teeth-that-areinside-
out.
8 Anthony G. Greenwald, “The Totalitarian Ego: Fabrication and
Revision of Personal History,” American Psychologist 35 (1980):
603–18.
9 Richard P. Feynman, “Surely You’re Joking, Mr. Feynman!”:
Adventures of a Curious Character (New York: W. W. Norton, 1985),
and “Cargo Cult Science,”
Caltech Commencement, 1974, calteches.
library.caltech.edu/51/2/CargoCult.htm.
10 “Text of Unabomber Manifesto,” New York Times, May 26, 1996,
archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/library/national/unabommanifesto‑1.
html.
11 Jonas T. Kaplan, Sarah I. Gimbel, and Sam Harris, “Neural Correlates
of Maintaining One’s Political Beliefs in the Face of Counterevidence,”
Scientific Reports 6 (2016): 39589.
12 Joseph LeDoux, The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings
of Emotional Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1998); Joseph
Cesario, David J. Johnson, and Heather L. Eisthen, “Your Brain Is
Not an Onion with a Tiny Reptile Inside,” Current Directions in
Psychological Science 29 (2020): 255–60.
13 Elizabeth Kolbert, “Why Facts Don’t Change Our Minds,” New Yorker,
February 27, 2017, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/02/27/whyfacts-
dont-change-our-minds.
14 Eli Pariser, The Filter Bubble: How the New Personalized Web Is
Changing What We Read and How We Think (New York: Penguin,
2011).
276 | תחשבו שוב / אדם גרנט
15 ideas42 Behavioral Summit, New York, NY, October 13, 2016.
16 Personal interview with Daniel Kahneman, June 13, 2019.
17 Corey Lee M. Keyes, “Subjective Change and Its Consequences for
Emotional Well-Being,” Motivation and Emotion 24 (2000): 67–84.
18 Anthony L. Burrow et al., “Derailment: Conceptualization, Measurement,
and Adjustment Correlates of Perceived Change in Self and
Direction,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 118 (2020):
584–601.
19 Michael J. Chandler et al., “Personal Persistence, Identity Development,
and Suicide: A Study of Native and Non-Native North American
Adolescents,”
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child
Development 68 (2003): 1–138.
20 Kaylin Ratner et al., “Depression and Derailment: A Cyclical Model of
Mental Illness and Perceived Identity Change,” Clinical Psychological
Science 7 (2019): 735–53.
21 Personal interview with Ray Dalio, October 11, 2017; “How to Love
Criticism,” WorkLife with Adam Grant, February 28, 2018.
22 Personal interviews with Jean-Pierre Beugoms, June 26 and July 22,
2019.
23 Nate Silver, “How I Acted Like a Pundit and Screwed Up on Donald
Trump,” FiveThirtyEight, May 18, 2016, fivethirtyeight.com/features/
how‑i‑acted-like‑a‑pundit-and-screwed‑up‑on‑donald-trump.
24 Andrew Sabisky, “Just-World Bias Has Twisted Media Coverage of
the Donald Trump Campaign,” International Business Times, March
9, 2016, www.ibtimes.co.uk/just-world-bias-has-twisted-mediacoverage-
donald-trump-campaign-1547151.
25 Jean-Pierre Beugoms, “Who Will Win the Republican
Party Nomination
for the U.S. Presidential Election?,” Good Judgment Open, November
18, 2015, www.gjopen.com/comments/44283.
26 Daryl R. Van Tongeren et al., “Religious Residue: Cross-Cultural
Evidence That Religious Psychology and Behavior Persist Following
הערות | 277
Deidentification,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
(March 12, 2020).
27 Philip E. Tetlock and Dan Gardner, Superforecasting: The Art and
Science of Prediction (New York: Random House, 2015); Philip E.
Tetlock, Expert Political Judgment: How Good Is It? How Can We
Know? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005).
28 Uriel Haran, Ilana Ritov, and Barbara A. Mellers, “The Role of Actively
Open-Minded Thinking in Information Acquisition, Accuracy, and
Calibration,” Judgment
and Decision Making 8 (2013): 188–201.
29 Barbara Mellers et al., “The Psychology of Intelligence Analysis:
Drivers of Prediction Accuracy in World Politics,” Journal of
Experimental Psychology:
Applied 21 (2015): 1–14.
30 Barbara Mellers et al., “Identifying and Cultivating Superforecasters
as a Method of Improving Probabilistic Predictions,” Perspectives
on
Psychological Science 10 (2015): 267–81.
31 Kathryn Schulz, Being Wrong: Adventures in the Margin of Error
(New York: HarperCollins, 2010).
32 Keith E. Stanovich and Richard F. West, “Reasoning Independently
of Prior Belief and Individual Differences in Actively Open-\Minded
Thinking,” Journal of Educational Psychology 89 (1997): 342–57.
33 Seinfeld, season 6, episode 16, “The Beard,” February 9, 1995, NBC.
34 Personal interview with Kjirste Morrell, May 21, 2019.
35 Asher Koriat, Sarah Lichtenstein, and Baruch Fischhoff, “Reasons for
Confidence,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning
and Memory 6 (1980): 107–18.
36 “Self-Defeating Humor Promotes Psychological
Well-Being, Study
Reveals,” ScienceDaily, February 8, 2018, www.sciencedaily.com/
releases/2018/02/180208104225.htm.
37 Jonathan B. Evans et al., “Gender and the Evaluation
of Humor at
Work,” Journal of Applied Psychology 104 (2019): 1077–87.
38 Mark Sullivan, “Jeff Bezos at re:MARS,” Fast Company, June 6, 2019,
www.fastcompany.com/90360687/jeff-bezos-business-advice‑5‑tipsfrom-
amazons-remars?_ ga= 2.101831750.679949067.1593530400-
358702464.1558396776.
39 John Noble Wilford, “Astronomer Retracts His Discovery of Planet,”
New York Times, January 16, 1992, www.nytimes.com/1992/01/16/us/
astronomer-retracts-his-discovery‑of‑planet.html.
40 Michael D. Lemonick, “When Scientists Screw Up,” Slate, October
15, 2012, slate.com/technology/2012/10/scientists-make-mistakeshow-
astronomers-and-biologists-correct-the-record-when-theyvescrewed‑up.
html.
41 Adam K. Fetterman and Kai Sassenberg, “The Reputational
Consequences of Failed Replications and Wrongness Admission
Among Scientists,” PLoS ONE 10 (2015): e0143723.
42 Adam K. Fetterman et al., “On the Willingness to Admit Wrongness:
Validation of a New Measure and an Exploration of Its Correlates,”
Personality and Individual
Differences 138 (2019): 193–202.
43 Will Smith, “Fault vs Responsibility,” YouTube, January 31, 2018,
www.youtube.com/watch? v= USsqkd-E9ag.
44 Chase, A Mind for Murder.
45 See James Q. Wilson, “In Search of Madness,” New York Times,
January 15, 1998, www.nytimes.com/1998/01/15/opinion/
in‑search‑of‑madness.html.
הערות פרק 4
1 Oscar Wilde, “The Remarkable Rocket,” in The Happy Prince and
Other Stories, ed. L. Carr (London: Heritage Illustrated Publishing,
1888/2014).
2 David McCullough, The Wright Brothers (New York: Simon &
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and Orville Wright (New York: W. W. Norton, 2003); James Tobin,
הערות | 279
To Conquer the Air (New York: Free Press, 2003); Peter L. Jakab and
Rick Young, eds., The Published Writings of Wilbur and Orville Wright
(Washington, DC: Smithsonian, 2000); Fred Howard, Wilbur and
Orville: A Biography
of the Wright Brothers (New York: Ballantine,
1988).
3 Jesse David Fox, “The History of Tina Fey and Amy Poehler’s Best
Friendship,” Vulture, December 15, 2015, www.vulture.com/2013/01/
history‑of‑tina-and-amys-best-friendship.html.
4 Michael Gallucci, “The Day John Lennon Met Paul McCartney,”
Ultimate Classic Rock, July 6, 2015, ultimateclassicrock.com/johnlennon-
meets-paul-mccartney.
5 Rosanna Greenstreet, “How We Met: Ben Cohen and Jerry
Greenfield,” Independent, May 28, 1995, www.independent.co.uk/
arts-entertainment/how‑we‑met-ben-cohen-and-jerry-greenfield-
1621559.html.
6 Karen A. Jehn, “A Multimethod Examination of the Benefits and
Detriments of Intragroup Conflict,” Administrative Science Quarterly
40 (1995): 256–82.
7 Penelope Spheeris et al., The Little Rascals, directed by Penelope
Spheeris, Universal Pictures, 1994.
8 William Goldman, The Princess Bride, directed by Rob Reiner, 20th
Century Fox, 1987.
9 David Mickey Evans and Robert Gunter, The Sandlot, directed
by
David Mickey Evans, 20th Century Fox, 1993.
10 Frank R. C. de Wit, Lindred L. Greer, and Karen A. Jehn, “The
Paradox of Intragroup Conflict: A Meta-analysis,” Journal of Applied
Psychology 97 (2012): 360–90.
11 Jiing-Lih Farh, Cynthia Lee, and Crystal I. C. Farh, “Task Conflict and
Creativity: A Question of How Much and When,” Journal of Applied
Psychology 95 (2010): 1173–80.
12 Carsten K. W. De Dreu, “When Too Little or Too Much Hurts: Evidence
for a Curvilinear Relationship between Task Conflict and Innovation
in Teams,” Journal of Management 32 (2006): 83–107.
13 Robert S. Dooley and Gerald E. Fryxell, “Attaining Decision Quality
and Commitment from Dissent: The Moderating Effects of Loyalty
and Competence in Strategic Decision-Making Teams,” Academy of
Management Journal 42 (1999): 389–402.
14 Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, Jean L. Kahwajy, and L. J. Bourgeois III,
“How Management Teams Can Have a Good Fight,” Harvard Business
Review, July–August 1997, 77–85.
15 Kathleen McCoy, E. Mark Cummings, and Patrick
“Constructive and Destructive Marital Conflict, Emotional Security
and Children’s Prosocial Behavior,” Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry 50 (2009): 270–79.
16 Donald W. Mackinnon, “Personality and the Realization of Creative
Potential,” American Psychologist 20 (1965): 273–81.
17 Paula Olszewski, Marilynn Kulieke, and Thomas Buescher, “The Influence
of the Family Environment on the Development of Talent: A
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6–28.
18 Robert S. Albert, ed., Genius & Eminence (Oxford: Pergamon Press,
1992).
19 Lauri A. Jensen-Campbell, Jennifer M. Knack, and Haylie L. Gomez,
“The Psychology of Nice People,” Social and Personality Psychology
Compass 4 (2010): 1042–56; Robert R. McCrae and Antonio
Terraciano, “National Character and Personality,”
Current Directions
in Psychological Science 15 (2006): 156–61.
20 Bryor Snefjella, Daniel Schmidtke, and Victor Kuperman,
“National
Character Stereotypes Mirror Language Use: A Study of Canadian and
American Tweets,” PLoS ONE 13 (2018): e0206188.
21 Henk T. van der Molen, Henk G. Schmidt, and Gerard Kruisman,
“Personality Characteristics of Engineers,” European Journal of
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Engineering Education 32 (2007): 495–501; Gidi Rubinstein, “The
Big Five among Male and Female Students of Different Faculties,” If
Personality and Individual Differences 38 (2005): 1495–503.
22 Stéphane Côté and D. S. Moskowitz, “On the Dynamic Covariation
between Interpersonal Behavior and Affect: Prediction from
Neuroticism, Extraversion, and Agreeableness,” Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology 75 (1998): 1032–46.
23 Personal interviews with Brad Bird, November 8, 2018, and April 28,
2020; Nicole Grindle, October 19, 2018, and March 17, 2020; and
John Walker, November
21, 2018, and March 24, 2020; “The Creative
Power of Misfits,” WorkLife with Adam Grant, March 5, 2019;
Hayagreeva Rao, Robert Sutton, and Allen P. Webb, “Innovation
Lessons from Pixar: An Interview with Oscar-Winning Director
Brad Bird,” McKinsey Quarterly, April 1, 2008, www.mckinsey.
com/business-unctions/strategy-and-corporate-finance/our-insights/
innovation-lessons-from-pixar‑an‑interview-with-oscar-winningdirector-
brad-bird; The Making of “The Incredibles,” directed by Rick
Butler, Pixar, 2005; Alec Bojalad, “The Incredibles 2: Brad Bird on
Family, Blu-Ray Extras, and More,” Den of Geek, October 24, 2018,
www.denofgeek.com/tv/the-incredibles‑2‑brad-bird‑on‑family-bluray-
extras-and-more.
24 Jeffery A. LePine and Linn Van Dyne, “Voice and Cooperative
Behavior as Contrasting Forms of Contextual Performance: Evidence
of Differential Relationships with Big Five Personality Characteristics
and Cognitive
Ability,” Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (2001):
326–36.
25 Samuel T. Hunter and Lily Cushenbery, “Is Being a Jerk Necessary for
Originality? Examining the Role of Disagreeableness in the Sharing
and Utilization of Original Ideas,” Journal of Business and Psychology
30 (2015): 621–39.
282 | תחשבו שוב / אדם גרנט
26 Leslie A. DeChurch and Michelle A. Marks, “Maximizing the Benefits
of Task Conflict: The Role of Conflict Management,” International
Journal of Conflict Management 12 (2001): 4–22.
27 Jing Zhou and Jennifer M. George, “When Job Dissatisfaction Leads
to Creativity: Encouraging the Expression of Voice,” Academy of
Management Journal 44 (2001): 682–96.
28 Amir Goldberg et al., “Fitting In or Standing Out? The Tradeoffs
of Structural and Cultural Embeddedness,” American Sociological
Review 81 (2016): 1190–222.
29 Joeri Hofmans and Timothy A. Judge, “Hiring for Culture Fit
Doesn’t Have to Undermine Diversity,” Harvard Business Review,
September 18, 2019, hbr.org/2019/09/hiring-for-culture-fit-doesnthave‑to‑undermine-
diversity.
30 Sun Hyun Park, James D. Westphal, and Ithai Stern, “Set Up for a
Fall: The Insidious Effects of Flattery and Opinion Conformity toward
Corporate Leaders,” Administrative Science Quarterly 56 (2011):
257–302.
31 William Safire, “On Language: Murder Board at the Skunk Works,”
New York Times, October 11, 1987, www.nytimes.com/1987/10/11/
magazine/on‑language-murder-board‑at‑the-skunk-works.html.
32 Derek Thompson, “Google X and the Science of Radical
Creativity,”
The Atlantic, November 2017, www.theatlantic.com/magazine/
archive/2017/11/x‑google-moonshot-factory/540648.
33 David Yeager et al., “Breaking the Cycle of Mistrust: Wise Interventions
to Provide Critical Feedback across the Racial Divide,” Journal of
Experimental
Psychology: General 143 (2014): 804–24.
34 The Cambridge Companion to Hemingway, ed. Scott Donaldson
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
35 Elizabeth W. Morrison, “Employee Voice Behavior: Integration
and Directions for Future Research,” Academy of Management
Annals 5 (2011): 373–412; Charlan Jeanne Nemeth, In Defense of
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Troublemakers: The Power of Dissent in Life and Business (New
York: Basic Books, 2018).
36 Jennifer A. Chatman and Sigal G. Barsade, “Personality, Organizational
Culture, and Cooperation: Evidence from a Business Simulation,”
Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (1995): 423–43.
37 De Wit, Greer, and Jehn, “The Paradox of Intragroup Conflict.”
38 Ming-Hong Tsai and Corinne Bendersky, “The Pursuit of Information
Sharing: Expressing Task Conflicts as Debates vs. Disagreements
Increases Perceived Receptivity to Dissenting Opinions in Groups,”
Organization Science 27 (2016): 141–56.
39 Philip M. Fernbach et al., “Political Extremism Is Supported
by an
Illusion of Understanding,” Psychological Science 24 (2013): 939–
46.
40 Leonid Rozenblit and Frank Keil, “The Misunderstood Limits
of Folk
Science: An Illusion of Explanatory Depth,” Cognitive Science 26
(2002): 521–62.
41 Matthew Fisher and Frank Keil, “The Curse of Expertise: When More
Knowledge Leads to Miscalibrated Explanatory Insight,” Cognitive
Science 40 (2016): 1251–69.
42 Dan R. Johnson, Meredith P. Murphy, and Riley M. Messer, “Reflecting
on Explanatory Ability: A Mechanism for Detecting Gaps in Causal
Knowledge,”
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 145
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הערות פרק 5
1 Tim Kreider, We Learn Nothing: Essays (New York: Simon & Schuster,
2012).
2 Personal interview with Harish Natarajan, May 23, 2019; “Live Debate:
IBM Project Debater,” IntelligenceSquared Debates, YouTube,
February 11, 2019, www.youtube.com/watch? v= m3u-1yttrVw.
3 Nicholas Kristof, “Too Small to Fail,” New York Times, June 2, 2016,
www.nytimes.com/2016/06/02/opinion/building-childrens-brains.
html.
4 George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1980).
5 Neil Rackham, “The Behavior of Successful Negotiators,”
in
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Barry, and David Saunders (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980/2007).
6 Femke S. Ten Velden, Bianca Beersma, and Carsten K. W. De Dreu,
“It Takes One to Tango: The Effects of Dyads’ Epistemic Motivation
Composition in Negotiations,” Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin 36 (2010): 1454–66.
7 Maria Popova, “How to Criticize with Kindness: Philosopher
Daniel
Dennett on the Four Steps to Arguing Intelligently,” BrainPickings,
March 28, 2014, www.brainpickings.org/2014/03/28/daniel-dennettrapoport-
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8 Fabrizio Butera, Nicolas Sommet, and Céline Darnon,
“Sociocognitive
Conflict Regulation: How to Make Sense of Diverging Ideas,” Current
Directions in Psychological Science 28 (2019): 145–51.
9 IBM Research Editorial Staff, “Think 2019 Kicks Off with Live Debate
between Man and Machine,” IBM Research Blog, February 12, 2019,
www.ibm.com/blogs/research/2019/02/ai‑debate-recap-think-2019;
Paul Teich, “IBM Project Debater Speaks to the Future of AI,” The
Next Platform, March 27, 2019, www.nextplatform.com/2019/03/27/
ibm-project-debater-speaks‑to‑the-future‑of‑ai; Dieter Bohn, “What
It’s Like to Watch an IBM AI Successfully Debate Humans,” The
Verge, June 18, 2018, www.theverge.com/2018/6/18/17477686/ibm
project-debater‑ai.
10 Conor Friedersdorf, “The Highest Form of Disagreement,” The
Atlantic, June 26, 2017, www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017
/06/the-highest-form‑of‑disagreement/531597.
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11 Kate A. Ranganath, Barbara A. Spellman, and Jennifer A. Joy-
Gaba, “Cognitive ‘Category-Based Induction’ Research and Social
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Are Each about What Makes Arguments
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12 Richard E. Petty and Duane T. Wegener, “The Elaboration Likelihood
Model: Current Status and Controversies,” in Dual-Process Theories
in Social Psychology, ed. Shelly Chaiken and Yaacov Trope (New
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13 John Biondo and A. P. MacDonald Jr., “Internal-External Locus of
Control and Response to Influence Attempts,” Journal of Personality
39 (1971): 407–19.
14 Daniel C. Feiler, Leigh P. Tost, and Adam M. Grant, “Mixed Reasons,
Missed Givings: The Costs of Blending Egoistic and Altruistic Reasons
in Donation Requests,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48
(2012): 1322–28.
15 Rachel (Penny) Breuhaus, “Get in the Game: Comparing the Effects
of Self-Persuasion and Direct Influence in Motivating Attendance at
UNC Men’s Basketball Games” (honors thesis, University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2009).
16 Elliot Aronson, “The Power of Self-Persuasion,” American
Psychologist 54 (1999): 875–84.
17 David G. Allen, Phillip C. Bryant, and James M. Vardaman, “Retaining
Talent: Replacing Misconceptions with Evidence-Based Strategies,”
Academy of Management
Perspectives 24 (2017): 48–64.
18 Paul Graham, “How to Disagree,” PaulGraham.com, March 2008,
www.paulgraham.com/disagree.html.
19 Aaron Kozbelt, “Longitudinal Hit Ratios of Classical Composers:
Reconciling ‘Darwinian’ and Expertise Acquisition Perspectives
on Lifespan Creativity,” Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and
the Arts 2 (2008): 221–35; Adam Grant, “The Surprising
Habits of
Original Thinkers,” TED Talk, February 2016, www.ted.com/talks/
adam_ grant_ the_ surprising_ habits_ of_ original_ thinkers.
20 See Michael Natkin, “Strong Opinions Loosely Held Might Be
the Worst Idea in Tech,” The Glowforge Blog, May 1, 2019, blog.
glowforge.com/strong-opinions-loosely-held-might‑be‑the-worstidea‑in‑tech.
21 Robert J. Cramer, Stanley L. Brodsky, and Jamie DeCoster,
“Expert
Witness Confidence and Juror Personality: Their Impact on Credibility
and Persuasion in the Courtroom,” Journal of the American Academy
of Psychiatry and Law 37 (2009) 63–74; Harvey London, Dennis
McSeveney, and Richard Tropper, “Confidence, Overconfidence and
Persuasion,” Human Relations 24 (1971): 359–69.
22 Mike Allen, “Meta-analysis Comparing the Persuasiveness of One-
Sided and Two-Sided Messages,” Western Journal of Speech Communication
55 (1991): 390–404.
23 Personal interview with Michele Hansen, February 23, 2018; “The
Problem with All-Stars,” WorkLife with Adam Grant, March 14,
2018.
24 The Office, season 3, episode 23, “Beach Games,” May 10, 2007,
NBC.
25 Seinfeld, season 5, episode 22, “The Opposite,” May 19, 1994, NBC.
26 Ovul Sezer, Francesca Gino, and Michael I. Norton, “Humblebragging:
A Distinct— and Ineffective— Self-Presentation Strategy,”
Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 114 (2018): 52–74.
הערות פרק 6
1 Doris Kearns Goodwin, MLB Pro Blog, doriskearns goodwin.mlblogs.
com.
2 Personal communications with Daryl Davis, April 10, 2020; Daryl
Davis, “What Do You Do When Someone Just Doesn’t Like You?,”
TEDxCharlottesville, November 2017, www.ted.com/talks/daryl_
הערות | 287
davis_ what_ do_ you_ do_ when_ someone_ just_ doesn_ t_ like_
you; Dwane Brown, “How One Man Convinced 200 Ku Klux Klan
Members to Give Up Their Robes,” NPR, August 20, 2017, www.
npr.org/transcripts/544861933; Craig Phillips, “Reformed Racists:
Is There Life after Hate for Former White Supremacists?,” PBS,
February 9, 2017, www.pbs.org/independentlens/blog/reformedracists-
white-supremacists-life-after-hate; The Joe Rogan Experience,
#1419, January 30, 2020; Jeffrey Fleishman, “A Black Man’s Quixotic
Quest to Quell the Racism of the KKK, One Robe at a Time,” Los
Angeles Times, December 8, 2016, www.latimes.com/entertainment/
movies/la‑ca‑film-accidental-courtesy-20161205-story.html.
3 Amos Barshad, “Yankees Suck! Yankees Suck!” Grantland, September
1, 2015, http://grantland.com/features/yankees-suck‑t‑shirtsboston-
red-sox.
4 Steven A. Lehr, Meghan L. Ferreira, and Mahzarin R. Banaji, “When
Outgroup Negativity Trumps Ingroup Positivity: Fans of the Boston
Red Sox and New York Yankees Place Greater Value on Rival Losses
Than Own-Team Gains,” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 22
(2017): 26–42.
5 Mina Cikara and Susan T. Fiske, “Their Pain, Our Pleasure: Stereotype
Content and Schadenfreude,” Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences 1299 (2013): 52–59.
6 “Most Hated Baseball Team on Twitter?,” Los Angeles Times, July
1, 2019, www.latimes.com/sports/mlb/la‑sp‑most-hated-mlb-teamstwitter-
yankees-cubs-dodgers-20190701-story.html.
7 “Puma and Adidas’ Rivalry Has Divided a Small German Town
for 70 Years — Here’s What It Looks Like Now,” Business Insider
Deutschland, October 1, 2018; Ellen Emmerentze Jervell, “Where
Puma and Adidas Were Like Hatfields and McCoys,” Wall Street
Journal, December 30, 2014, www.wsj.com/articles/where-adidasand-
pumas-were-like-hatfields-and-mccoys-1419894858; Allan Hall,
“Adidas and Puma Bury the Hatchet after 60 Years of Brothers’ Feud
after Football Match,” Daily Telegraph, September 22, 2009, www.
telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/6216728/Adidasand-
Puma-bury-the-hatchet-after‑60‑years‑of‑brothers-feud-afterfootball-
match.html.
8 Kimberly D. Elsbach and C. B. Bhattacharya, “Defining
Who You
Are by What You’re Not: Organizational Disidentification and the
National Rifle Association,” Organization Science 12 (2001): 393–413.
9 Gavin J. Kilduff et al., “Whatever It Takes to Win: Rivalry Increases
Unethical Behavior,” Academy of Management Journal 59 (2016):
1508–34.
10 Michael Diehl, “The Minimal Group Paradigm: Theoretical
Explanations and Empirical Findings,” European Review of Social
Psychology 1 (1990): 263–92.
11 Dave Hauser (@DavidJHauser), December 5, 2019, twitter.com/
DavidJHauser/status/1202610237934592000.
12 Philip Furley, “What Modern Sports Competitions Can Tell Us about
Human Nature,” Perspectives on Psychological Science 14 (2019):
138–55.
13 Robert B. Cialdini et al., “Basking in Reflected Glory: Three (Football)
Field Studies,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34
(1976): 366–75.
14 John K. Ashton, Robert Simon Hudson, and Bill Gerrard, “Do
National Soccer Results Really Impact on the Stock Market?,” Applied
Economics 43 (2011): 3709–17; Guy Kaplanski and Haim Levy,
“Exploitable Predictable Irrationality: The FIFA World Cup Effect
on the U.S. Stock Market,” Journal of Financial and Quantitative
Analysis
45 (2010): 535–53; Jerome Geyer-Klingeberg et al., “Do
Stock Markets React to Soccer Games? A Meta-regression Analysis,”
Applied Economics 50 (2018): 2171–89.
הערות | 289
15 Panagiotis Gkorezis et al., “Linking Football Team Performance to
Fans’ Work Engagement and Job Performance: Test of a Spillover
Model,” Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology 89
(2016): 791–812.
16 Gavin J. Kilduff, Hillary Anger Elfenbein, and Barry M. Staw,
“The Psychology of Rivalry: A Relationally Dependent Analysis of
Competition,” Academy of Management Journal 53 (2010): 943–69.
17 Seth Stephens-Davidowitz, “They Hook You When You’re Young,”
New York Times, April 19, 2014, www.nytimes.com/2014/04/20/
opinion/sunday/they-hook-you-when-youre-young.html; J. Clement,
“Major League Baseball Teams with the Most Facebook Fans as of June
2020,” Statista, June 16, 2020, www.statista.com/statistics/235719/
facebook-fans‑of‑major-league-baseball-teams.
18 George A. Kelly, The Psychology of Personal Constructs, vol. 1, A
Theory of Personality (New York: Norton, 1955).
19 Daniel J. Isenberg, “Group Polarization: A Critical Review and Metaanalysis,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986):
1141–51.
20 Robert M. Bray and Audrey M. Noble, “Authoritarianism and Decision
in Mock Juries: Evidence of Jury Bias and Group Polarization,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36 (1978): 1424–30.
21 Cass R. Sunstein and Reid Hastie, Wiser: Getting Beyond Groupthink
to Make Groups Smarter (Boston: Harvard Business Review Press,
2014).
22 Liran Goldman and Michael A. Hogg, “Going to Extremes for One’s
Group: The Role of Prototypicality and Group Acceptance,” Journal
of Applied Social Psychology 46 (2016): 544–53; Michael A. Hogg,
John C. Turner, and Barbara Davidson, “Polarized Norms and Social
Frames of Reference: A Test of the Self-Categorization Theory of
Group Polarization,” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 11 (1990):
77–100.
23 Johannes Berendt and Sebastian Uhrich, “Rivalry and Fan Aggression:
Why Acknowledging Conflict Reduces Tension between Rival Fans
and Downplaying
Makes Things Worse,” European Sport Management
Quarterly 18 (2018): 517–40.
24 Peter Suedfeld, Katya Legkaia, and Jelena Brcic, “Changes in the
Hierarchy of Value References Associated with Flying in Space,”
Journal of Personality 78 (2010): 1411–36.
25 “Edgar Mitchell’s Strange Voyage,” People, April 8, 1974, people.
com/archive/edgar-mitchells-strange-voyage-vol‑1‑no‑6.
26 Personal interview with Jeff Ashby, January 12, 2018; “How to Trust
People You Don’t Like,” WorkLife with Adam Grant, March 28,
2018.
27 Mark Levine et al., “Identity and Emergency Intervention: How Social
Group Membership and Inclusiveness of Group Boundaries Shape
Helping Behavior,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31
(2005): 443–53.
28 Herbert C. Kelman, “Group Processes in the Resolution of International
Conflicts: Experiences from the Israeli-Palestinian Case,” American
Psychologist
52 (1997): 212–20.
29 Alison R. Fragale, Karren Knowlton, and Adam M. Grant, “Feeling for
Your Foes: Empathy Can Reverse the In‑Group Helping Preference”
(working paper, 2020).
30 Myron Rothbart and Oliver P. John, “Social Categorization and
Behavioral Episodes: A Cognitive Analysis of the Effects of Intergroup
Contact,” Journal
of Social Issues 41 (1985): 81–104.
31 ESPN College Football, www.espn.com/video/clip/_/id/18106107.
32 Seinfeld, season 6, episode 12, “The Label Maker,” January 19, 1995,
NBC
33 Tim Kundro and Adam M. Grant, “Bad Blood on the Diamond:
Highlighting the Arbitrariness of Acrimony Can Reduce Animosity
toward Rivals” (working
paper, 2020).
הערות | 291
34 Kai Epstude and Neal J. Roese, “The Functional Theory of
Counterfactual Thinking,” Personality and Social Psychology Review
12 (2008): 168–92.
35 Lee Jussim et al., “The Unbearable Accuracy of Stereotypes,” in
Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination, ed. Todd
36 Lee Jussim, Jarret T. Crawford,
and Rachel S. Rubinstein, “Stereotype
(In)accuracy in Perceptions of Groups and Individuals,” Current
Directions in Psychological Science 24 (2015): 490–97.
37 Jackson G. Lu et al., “Disentangling Stereotypes from Social Reality:
Astrological Stereotypes and Discrimination in China,” Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology (2020), psycnet.apa.org/
record/2020-19028-001.
38 Gregory R. Maio and James M. Olson, “Values as Truisms:
Evidence
and Implications,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74
(1998): 294–311.
39 Paul H. P. Hanel, Gregory R. Maio, and Antony S. R. Manstead,
“A New Way to Look at the Data: Similarities between Groups of
People Are Large and Important,” Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 116 (2019): 541–62.
40 Thomas F. Pettigrew and Linda R. Tropp, “A Meta-analytic Test of
Intergroup Contact Theory,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
90 (2006): 751–83.
41 Jennifer R. Overbeck and Vitaliya Droutman,
“One for All: Social
Power Increases Self-Anchoring of Traits, Attitudes, and Emotions,”
Psychological Science 24 (2013): 1466–76.
42 Leigh Plunkett Tost, Francesca Gino, and Richard P. Larrick, “When
Power Makes Others Speechless,” Academy of Management
Journal
56 (2013): 1465–86.
הערות לפרק 7
1 See Eric Boodman, “The Vaccine Whisperers:
Counselors Gently
Engage New Parents Before Their Doubts Harden into Certainty,”
STAT, August 5, 2019, www.statnews.com/2019/08/05/the-vaccinewhisperers-
counselors-gently-engage-new-parents-before-theirdoubts-
harden-into-certainty.
2 Nick Paumgarten, “The Message of Measles,” New Yorker,
August 26, 2019, www.newyorker.com/magazine/2019/09/02/themessage‑of‑measles;
Leslie Roberts, “Why Measles Deaths Are
Surging — and Coronavirus Could Make It Worse,” Nature, April 7,
2020, www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-01011‑6.
3 Helen Branswell, “New York County, Declaring Emergency
over Measles, Seeks to Ban Unvaccinated from Public Places,”
STAT, March 26, 2019, www.statnews.com/2019/03/26/rocklandcounty‑ny‑declares-
emergency-over-measles; Tyler Pager, “ ‘Monkey,
Rat and Pig DNA’: How Misinformation Is Driving the Measles
Outbreak among Ultra-Orthodox Jews,” New York Times, April 9, 2019,
www.nytimes.com/2019/04/09/nyregion/jews-measles-vaccination.
html.
4 Matthew J. Hornsey, Emily A. Harris, and Kelly S. Fielding, “The
Psychological Roots of Anti-Vaccination Attitudes: A 24‑Nation
Investigation,”
Health Psychology 37 (2018): 307–15.
5 Cornelia Betsch and Katharina Sachse, “Debunking Vaccination
Myths: Strong Risk Negations Can Increase Perceived Vaccination
Risks,” Health Psychology 32 (2013): 146–55.
6 Brendan Nyhan et al., “Effective Messages in Vaccine Promotion: A
Randomized Trial,” Pediatrics 133 (2014): e835–42.
7 Zakary L. Tormala and Richard E. Petty, “What Doesn’t Kill Me
Makes Me Stronger: The Effects of Resisting Persuasion on Attitude
Certainty,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002):
1298–313.
הערות | 293
8 William J. McGuire, “Inducing Resistance to Persuasion: Some
Contemporary Approaches,” Advances in Experimental Social
Psychology 1 (1964): 191–229.
9 John A. Banas and Stephen A. Rains, “A Meta-analysis of Research
on
Inoculation Theory,” Communication Monographs 77 (2010): 281–311.
10 Personal communications with Bill Miller, September
3 and 6, 2019.
11 William R. Miller and Stephen
Rollnick, Motivational Interviewing:
Helping People Change, 3rd ed. (New York: Guilford,
2012).
12 Personal interview with Arnaud Gagneur, October 8, 2019.
13 Arnaud Gagneur et al., “A Postpartum Vaccination Promotion
Intervention Using Motivational Interviewing Techniques Improves
Short-Term Vaccine Coverage: Promo Vac Study,” BMC Public Health
18 (2018): 811.
14 Thomas Lemaître et al., “Impact of a Vaccination Promotion
Intervention Using Motivational Interview Techniques on Long-Term
Vaccine Coverage: The Promo Vac Strategy,” Human Vaccines &
Immunotherapeutics 15 (2019): 732–39.
15 Carolyn J. Heckman, Brian L. Egleston, and Makary T. Hofmann,
“Efficacy of Motivational Interviewing for Smoking Cessation: A
Systematic Review
and Meta-analysis,” Tobacco Control 19 (2010):
410–16.
16 Brad W. Lundahl et al., “A Meta-analysis of Motivational Interviewing:
Twenty-Five Years of Empirical Studies,” Research on Social Work
Practice 20 (2010): 137–60.
17 Brian L. Burke, Hal Arkowitz, and Marisa Menchola,
“The Efficacy
of Motivational Interviewing: A Meta-analysis of Controlled Clinical
Trials,” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 71 (2003):
843–61.
18 Pam Macdonald et al., “The Use of Motivational Interviewing in
Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review,” Psychiatry Research 200
(2012): 1–11.
19 Marni J. Armstrong et al., “Motivational Interviewing to Improve
Weight Loss in Overweight Patients: A Systematic Review and Metaanalysis
of Randomized Controlled Trials,” Obesity Reviews 12
(2011): 709–23.
20 Jonathan Rhodes et al., “Enhancing Grit through Functional Imagery
Training in Professional Soccer,” Sport Psychologist 32 (2018): 220–25.
21 Neralie Cain, Michael Gradisar, and Lynette Moseley, “A Motivational
School-Based Intervention for Adolescent Sleep Problems,” Sleep
Medicine 12 (2011): 246–51.
22 Conrado J. Grimolizzi-Jensen, “Organizational Change: Effect of
Motivational Interviewing on Readiness to Change,” Journal of
Change Management
18 (2018): 54–69.
23 Angelica K. Thevos, Robert E. Quick, and Violet Yanduli, “Motivational
Interviewing Enhances the Adoption of Water Disinfection
Practices in Zambia,” Health Promotion International 15 (2000):
207–14.
24 Florian E. Klonek et al., “Using Motivational Interviewing to Reduce
Threats in Conversations about Environmental Behavior,” Frontiers
in Psychology
6 (2015): 1015; Sofia Tagkaloglou and Tim Kasser,
“Increasing Collaborative, Pro-Environmental Activism: The Roles
of Motivational Interviewing, Self-Determined Motivation, and Self-
Efficacy,” Journal of Environmental Psychology 58 (2018): 86–92.
25 Joshua L. Kalla and David E. Broockman, “Reducing
Exclusionary
Attitudes through Interpersonal Conversation: Evidence from Three
Field Experiments,” American Political Science Review 114 (2020):
410–25.
26 Megan Morris, W. Kim Halford, and Jemima Petch, “A Randomized
Controlled Trial Comparing Family Mediation with and without
Motivational Interviewing,” Journal of Family Psychology 32 (2018):
269–75.
27 Sune Rubak et al., “Motivational Interviewing: A Systematic
Review
הערות | 295
and Meta-analysis,” British Journal of General Practice 55 (2005):
305–12.
28 Anna Goldfarb, “How to Give People Advice They’ll Be Delighted
to Take,” New York Times, October 21, 2019, www.nytimes.
com/2019/10/21/smarter-living/how‑to‑give-better-advice.html.
29 Molly Magill et al., “A Meta-analysis of Motivational Interviewing
Process: Technical, Relational, and Conditional Process Models of
Change,” Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 86 (2018):
140–57; Timothy R. Apodaca et al., “Which Individual Therapist
Behaviors Elicit Client Change Talk and Sustain Talk in Motivational
Interviewing?,” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 61 (2016): 60–
65; Molly Magill et al., “The Technical Hypothesis of Motivational
Interviewing: A Meta-analysis of MI’s Key Causal Model,” Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 82 (2014): 973–83.
30 Theresa Moyers, “Change Talk,” Talking to Change with Glenn Hinds
& Sebastian Kaplan.
31 Marian Friestad and Peter Wright, “The Persuasion
Knowledge Model:
How People Cope with Persuasion Attempts,” Journal of Consumer
Research 21 (1994): 1–31.
32 Personal interviews with Betty Bigombe, March 19 and May 8, 2020;
see also “Betty Bigombe: The Woman Who Befriended a Warlord,”
BBC, August 8, 2019, www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-49269136.
33 David Smith, “Surrender of Senior Aide to Joseph Kony Is Major
Blow to Lord’s Resistance Army,” Guardian, January 7, 2015, www.
theguardian.com/global-development/2015/jan/07/surrender-aidejoseph-
kony-blow-lords-resistance-army.
34 Kate Murphy, “Talk Less. Listen More. Here’s How,” New York Times,
January 9, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2020/01/09/opinion/listeningtips.
html.
35 Guy Itzchakov et al., “The Listener Sets the Tone: High-Quality
Listening Increases Attitude Clarity and Behavior-Intention Con296
| תחשבו שוב / אדם גרנט
sequences,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 44 (2018):
762–78; Guy Itzchakov, Avraham N. Kluger, and Dotan R. Castro,
“I Am Aware of My Inconsistencies but Can Tolerate Them: The
Effect of High Quality Listening on Speakers’ Attitude Ambivalence,”
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 43 (2017): 105–20.
36 Guy Itzchakov and Avraham N. Kluger, “Can Holding a Stick
Improve Listening at Work? The Effect of Listening Circles on
Employees’ Emotions and Cognitions,” European Journal of Work
and Organizational Psychology 26 (2017): 663–76.
37 Guy Itzchakov and Avraham N. Kluger, “The Power of Listening in
Helping People Change,” Harvard Business Review, May 17, 2018,
hbr.org/2018/05/the-power‑of‑listening‑in‑helping-people-change.
38 E. M. Forster, Aspects of the Novel (New York: Houghton Mifflin,
1927/1956); see also Graham Wallas, The Art of Thought (Kent,
England: Solis Press, 1926/2014).
39 Wendy Moffat, E. M. Forster: A New Life (London: Bloomsbury,
2011).
40 “Poll: 1 in 3 Women Say Pets Listen Better Than Husbands,”
USA
Today, April 30, 2010, usatoday30.usatoday.com/life/lifestyle/
pets/2010‑04‑30‑pets‑vs‑spouses_N.htm.
41 Naykky Singh Ospina et al., “Eliciting the Patient’s Agenda: Secondary
Analysis of Recorded Clinical Encounters,” Journal of General
Internal Medicine 34 (2019): 36–40.
42 M. Kim Marvel et al., “Soliciting the Patient’s Agenda: Have We
Improved?,” Journal of the American Medical Association 281 (1999):
283–87.
הערות לפרק 8
1 Amanda Ripley, “Complicating the Narratives,” Solutions Journalism,
June 27, 2018, thewholestory.solutionsjournalism.org/complicatingthe-
narratives-b91ea06ddf63.
הערות | 297
2 Peter T. Coleman, The Five Percent: Finding Solutions to Seemingly
Impossible Conflicts (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011).
3 Katharina Kugler and Peter T. Coleman, “Get Complicated: The
Effects of Complexity on Conversations over Potentially Intractable
Moral Conflicts,” Negotiation and Conflict Management Research
(2020), onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/ncmr.12192.
4 Matthew Fisher and Frank C. Keil, “The Binary Bias: A Systematic
Distortion in the Integration of Information,” Psychological Science
29 (2018): 1846–58.
5 “The Most Popular Book of the Month,” Vanity Fair, February
1920,
babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt? id=mdp.39015032024203& view=1up&
seq=203& q1=divide% 20the% 20world.
6 Walt Whitman, Leaves of Grass, in Walt Whitman: The Complete
Poems, ed. Francis Murphy (London: Penguin Classics, 1855/2005).
7 Ripley, “Complicating the Narratives.”
8 Mike DeBonis and Emily Guskin, “Americans of Both Parties
Overwhelmingly Support ‘Red Flag’ Laws, Expanded Background
Checks for Gun Buyers, Washington Post — ABC News Poll Finds,”
Washington Post, September 9, 2019, www.washingtonpost.com/
politics/americans‑of‑both-parties-overwhelmingly-support-red-flaglaws-
expanded-gun-background-checks-washington-post-abc-newspoll-
finds/2019/09/08/97208916-ca75-11e9-a4f3-c081a126de70_
story.html; Domenico Montanaro,
“Poll: Most Americans Want to See
Congress Pass Gun Restrictions,” NPR, September
10, 2019, www.
npr.org/2019/09/10/759193047/poll-most-americans-want‑to‑seecongress-
pass-gun-restrictions.
9 Moira Fagan and Christine Huang, “A Look at How People around the
World View Climate Change,” Pew Research Center, April 18, 2019,
www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/04/18/a‑look‑at‑how-peoplearound-
the-world-view-climate-change.
10 “Environment,” Gallup, news.gallup.com/poll/1615/environment.
aspx; “About Six in Ten Americans Think Global Warming Is Mostly
Human-Caused,” Yale Program on Climate Change, December
2018, climatecommunication.yale.edu/wp‑content/uploads/2019/01/
climate_ change_ american_ mind_ december_ 2018_ 1‑3.png.
11 Ben Tappin, Leslie Van Der Leer, and Ryan Mckay, “You’re Not
Going to Change Your Mind,” New York Times, May 27, 2017, www.
nytimes.com/2017/05/27/opinion/sunday/youre-not-going‑to‑changeyour-
mind.html.
12 Lawrence C. Hamilton, “Education, Politics and Opinions
about
Climate Change: Evidence for Interaction Effects,” Climatic Change
104 (2011): 231–42.
13 Al Gore, “The Case for Optimism on Climate Change,” TED, February
2016, www.ted.com/talks/al_ gore_ the_ case_ for_ optimism_ on_
climate_ change.
14 Steven Levy, “We Are Now at Peak TED,” Wired, February 19, 2016,
www.wired.com/2016/02/we‑are-now‑at‑peak-ted.
15 Al Gore, “We Can’t Wish Away Climate Change,” New York Times,
February 27, 2010, www.nytimes.com/2010/02/28/opinion/28gore.
html.
16 “Global Warming’s Six Americas,” Yale Program on Climate Change
Communication, climatecommunication.yale.edu/about/projects/
global-warmings-six-americas.
17 Philipp Schmid and Cornelia Betsch, “Effective Strategies for
Rebutting Science Denialism in Public Discussions,” Nature Human
Behavior 3 (2019): 931–39.
18 Alexander Michael Petersen, Emmanuel
LeRoy Westerling, “Discrepancy in Scientific Authority and Media
Visibility of Climate Change Scientists and Contrarians,” Nature
Communications
10 (2019): 3502.
19 Matto Mildenberger and Dustin Tingley, “Beliefs about Climate
הערות | 299
Beliefs: The Importance of Second-Order Opinions for Climate
Politics,” British Journal of Political Science 49 (2019): 1279–307.
20 Anne Marthe van der Bles et al., “The Effects of Communicating
Uncertainty on Public Trust in Facts and Numbers,” PNAS 117 (2020):
7672–83.
21 Uma R. Karmarkar and Zakary L. Tormala, “Believe Me, I Have
No Idea What I’m Talking About: The Effects of Source Certainty
on Consumer Involvement and Persuasion,” Journal of Consumer
Research 36 (2010): 1033–49.
22 Tania Lombrozo, “In Science Headlines, Should Nuance Trump
Sensation?,” NPR, August 3, 2015, www.npr.org/sections/13.7/20
15/08/03/428984912/in‑science-headlines-should-nuance-trumpsensation.
23 Vincenzo Solfrizzi et al., “Coffee Consumption Habits and the Risk
of Mild Cognitive Impairment: The Italian Longitudinal Study on
Aging,” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease 47 (2015): 889–99.
24 Ariana Eunjung Cha, “Yesterday’s Coffee Science: It’s Good for the
Brain. Today: Not So Fast . . .*” Washington Post, August 28, 2015,
www.washingtonpost.com/news/to‑your-health/wp/2015/07/30/
yesterdays-coffee-science-its-good-for-the-brain-today-not‑so‑fast.
25 “Do Scientists Agree on Climate Change?,” NASA, https://climate.
nasa.gov/faq/17/do‑scientists agree‑on‑climate-change; John Cook et
al., “Consensus on Consensus: A Synthesis of Consensus Estimates on
Human-Caused Global Warming,” Environmental Research Letters
11 (2016): 048002; David Herring, “Isn’t There a Lot of Disagreement
among Climate Scientists about Global Warming?,” ClimateWatch
Magazine, February 3, 2020, www.climate.gov/news-features/
climate‑qa/isnt-there-lot-disagreement-among-climate-scientistsabout-
global-warming.
26 Carolyn Gramling, “Climate Models Agree Things Will Get Bad.
Capturing Just How Bad Is Tricky,” ScienceNews, January 7, 2020,
www.science news.org/article/why-climate-change-models-disagreeearth-
worst-case-scenarios.
27 Paul G. Bain et al., “Co‑Benefits of Addressing Climate Change Can
Motivate Action around the World,” Nature Climate Change 6 (2016):
154–57.
28 Matthew Feinberg and Robb Willer, “The Moral Roots of
Environmental Attitudes,” Psychological Science 24 (2013): 56–62.
29 Christopher Wolsko, Hector Ariceaga, and Jesse Seiden, “Red,
White, and Blue Enough to Be Green: Effects of Moral Framing on
Climate Change Attitudes and Conservation Behaviors,” Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology 65 (2016): 7–19.
30 Troy H. Campbell and Aaron C. Kay, “Solution Aversion: On the
Relation between Ideology and Motivated Disbelief,” Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 107 (2014): 809–24.
31 Mary Annaise Heglar, “I Work in the Environmental Movement. I
Don’t Care If You Recycle,” Vox, May 28, 2019, www.vox.com/thehighlight/
2019/5/28/18629833/climate-change-2019-green-new-deal;
Bob Berwyn, “Can Planting a Trillion Trees Stop Climate Change?
Scientists Say It’s a Lot More Complicated,” Inside Climate News,
May 27, 2020, insideclimatenews.org/news/26052020/trillion-treesclimate-
change? gclid= EAIaIQobChMIrb6n1qHF6gIVFInICh2kgg
WNEAAYAiAAEgI-sPD_ BwE.
32 Lewis Bott et al., “Caveats in Science-Based News Stories
Communicate Caution without Lowering Interest,” Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Applied 25 (2019): 517–42.
33 See, for example, Ute Hülsheger, Neil R. Anderson, and Jesus
Comprehensive Meta-analysis Spanning Three Decades of Research,”
Journal of Applied Psychology 94 (2009): 1128–45; Cristian L.
Dezsö and David Gaddis Ross, “Does Female Representation
in Top Management Improve Firm Performance? A Panel Data
Investigation,” Strategic Management Journal 33 (2012): 1072–89;
Samuel R. Sommers, “On Racial Diversity and Group Decision
Making: Identifying Multiple Effects of Racial Composition on
Jury Deliberations,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
90 (2006): 597–612; Denise Lewin Loyd et al., “Social Category
Diversity Promotes Premeeting Elaboration: The Role of Relationship
Focus,” Organization Science 24 (2013): 757–72.
34 Elizabeth Mannix and Margaret A. Neale, “What Differences Make a
Difference? The Promise and Reality of Diverse Teams in Organizations,”
Psychological Science in the Public Interest 6 (2005): 31–55.
35 Lisa Leslie, “What Makes a Workplace
Diversity Program Successful?,”
Center for Positive Organizations, January 22, 2020, positiveorgs.
bus.umich.edu/news/what-makes‑a‑workplace-diversity-programsuccessful.
36 Edward H. Chang et al., “The Mixed Effects of Online Diversity
Training,” PNAS 116 (2019): 7778–83.
37 Ella Miron-Spektor, Francesca Gino, and Linda Argote, “Paradoxical
Frames and Creative Sparks: Enhancing Individual Creativity through
Conflict
and Integration,” Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 116 (2011): 229–40; Dustin J. Sleesman, “Pushing
Through the Tension While Stuck in the Mud: Paradox Mindset and
Escalation of Commitment,” Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 155 (2019): 83–96.
38 Julian Matthews, “A Cognitive Scientist Explains Why Humans Are
So Susceptible to Fake News and Misinformation,” NiemanLab, April
17, 2019, www.niemanlab.org/2019/04/a‑cognitive-scientist-explainswhy-
humans-are‑so‑susceptible‑to‑fake-news-and-misinformation.
דניאל גולמן, אינטליגנציה רגשית, הוצאת מטר, 2009 . 39
and “What Makes a Leader?,” Harvard Business Review, January 2004;
Jordan B. Peterson, “There Is No Such Thing as EQ,” Quora, August
22, 2019, www.quora.com/What‑is‑more-beneficial‑in‑all-aspects‑of302
| תחשבו שוב / אדם גרנט
life‑a‑high‑EQ‑or‑IQ‑This-question‑is‑based‑on‑the-assumption-thatonly-
your‑EQ‑or‑IQ‑is‑high-with-the-other-being-average‑or‑belowthis-
average.
40 Dana L. Joseph and Daniel A. Newman, “Emotional Intelligence: An
Integrative Meta-analysis and Cascading Model,” Journal of Applied
Psychology
95 (2010): 54–78; Dana L. Joseph et al., “Why Does Self-
Reported EI Predict Job Performance? A Meta-analytic Investigation
of Mixed EI,” Journal of Applied Psychology 100 (2015): 298–342.
41 Joseph and Newman, “Emotional Intelligence.”
42 Adam Grant, “Emotional Intelligence Is Overrated,” LinkedIn,
September 30, 2014, www.linkedin.com/pulse/20140930125543-
69244073-emotional-intelligence‑is‑overrated.
43 Olga Khazan, “The Myth of ‘Learning Styles,’ ” The Atlantic,
April 11, 2018, www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2018/04/themyth‑of‑learning-
styles/557687.
44 Harold Pashler et al., “Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence,”
Psychological Science in the Public Interest 9 (2008): 105–19.
45 Adam Grant, “Can We End the Meditation Madness?,” New York
Times, October 9, 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/10/10/opinion/
can‑we‑end-the-meditation-madness.html.
46 Adam Grant, “MBTI, If You Want Me Back, You Need to
Change Too,” Medium, November 17, 2015, medium.com/@
AdamMGrant/mbti‑if‑you-want‑me‑back-you-need‑to‑change-tooc7f1a7b6970;
Adam Grant, “Say Goodbye to MBTI, the Fad That
Won’t Die,” LinkedIn, September 17, 2013, www.linkedin.com/
pulse/20130917155206-69244073-say-goodbye‑to‑mbti-the-fad-thatwon‑t‑die.
47 Adam Grant, “The Fine Line between Helpful and Harmful Authenticity,”
New York Times, April 10, 2020, www.nytimes.
com/2020/04/10/smarter-living/the-fine-line-between-helpful-andharmful-
authenticity.html; Adam Grant, “Unless You’re Oprah,
‘Be Yourself’ Is Terrible Advice,” New York Times, June 4, 2016,
www.nytimes.com/2016/06/05/opinion/sunday/unless-youreoprah‑be‑yourself
‑is ‑terrible-advice.html.
48 John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press,
1971).
49 Rhia Catapano, Zakary L. Tormala, and Derek D. Rucker, “Perspective
Taking and Self-Persuasion: Why ‘Putting Yourself in Their Shoes’
Reduces Openness to Attitude Change,” Psychological Science 30
(2019): 424–35.
50 Tal Eyal, Mary Steffel, and Nicholas Epley, “Perspective
Mistaking:
Accurately Understanding the Mind of Another Requires Getting
Perspective,
Not Taking Perspective,” Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology 114 (2018): 547–71.
51 Yascha Mounk, “Republicans Don’t Understand Democrats — and
Democrats Don’t Understand Republicans,” The Atlantic, June 23,
2019, www.theatlantic .com/ideas/archive/2019/06/republicans-anddemocrats-
dont-understand-each-other/592324.
52 Julian J. Zlatev, “I May Not Agree with You, but I Trust You: Caring
about Social Issues Signals Integrity,” Psychological Science 30
(2019): 880–92.
53 Corinne Bendersky, “Resolving Ideological Conflicts by Affirming
Opponents’ Status: The Tea Party, Obamacare and the 2013
Government Shutdown,” Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 53 (2014): 163–68.
54 Patti Williams and Jennifer L. Aaker, “Can Mixed Emotions Peacefully
Coexist?,” Journal of Consumer Research 28 (2002): 636–49.
55 Beca Grimm, “11 Feelings There Are No Words for in English,”
Bustle, July 15, 2015, www.bustle.com/articles/97413‑11‑feelingsthere-
are‑no‑words-for‑in‑english-for-all-you-emotional-word-nerdsout.
56 Bill Demain et al., “51 Wonderful Words with No English Equivalent,”
Mental Floss, December 14, 2015, www.mentalfloss.com/
article/50698/38‑wonderful-foreign-words‑we‑could-use-english.
57 Kate Bratskeir, “ ‘Kummerspeck,’ or Grief Bacon, Is the German Word
for What Happens When You Eat When You’re Sad,” Mic, December
19, 2017, www.mic.com/articles/186933/kummerspeck‑or‑griefbacon‑is‑the-
german-word-for-eating-when-sad.
58 Ibram X. Kendi, How to Be an Antiracist (New York: One World,
2019).
59 Don Lemon, “She Called Police on Him in Central Park. Hear His
Response,” CNN, May 27, 2020, www.cnn.com/videos/us/2020/05/27/
christian-cooper-central-park-video-lemon-ctn-sot-intv-vpx.cnn.
הערות לפרק 9
1 Grant Allen [pseud. Olive Pratt Rayner], Rosalba: The Story of Her
Development (London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1899).
2 Personal interview with Erin McCarthy, January 14, 2020; Scott
Anderson, “Wisconsin National Teacher of the Year Nominee Is from
Greendale,”
Patch, August 20, 2019, patch.com/wisconsin/greendale/
wisconsin-national-teacher-year-nominee-greendale.
3 Deborah Kelemen, “The Magic of Mechanism: Explanation-Based
Instruction
on Counterintuitive Concepts in Early Childhood,”
Perspectives on Psychological Science 14 (2019): 510–22.
4 Sam Wineburg, Daisy Martin, and Chauncey Monte-Sano, Reading
Like a Historian (New York: Teachers College Press, 2013).
5 “Teacher Materials and Resources,” Historical Thinking
Matters,
http://historicalthinkingmatters.org/teachers.
6 Elizabeth Emery, “Have Students Interview Someone They Disagree
With,” Heterodox Academy, February 11, 2020, heterodoxacademy.
org/viewpoint-diversity-students-interview-someone.
7 Annabelle Timsiy, “In the Age of Fake News, Here’s How Schools Are
Teaching Kids to Think Like Fact-Checkers,” Quartz, February 12,
2019, qz.com/1533747/in‑the-age‑of‑fake-news-heres-how-schoolsare-
teaching-kids‑to‑think-like-fact-checkers.
8 Rose Troup Buchanan, “King Tutankhamun Did Not Die in Chariot
Crash, Virtual Autopsy Reveals,” Independent, October 20, 2014,
www.independent.co.uk/news/science/king-tutankhamun-did-notdie‑in‑chariot-
crash-virtual-autopsy-reveals-9806586.html.
9 Brian Resnick, “Farts: Which Animals Do, Which Don’t, and
Why,” Vox, October 19, 2018, www.vox.com/science-andhealth/
2018/4/3/17188186/does‑it‑fart-book-animal-farts-dinosaurfarts.
10 Louis Deslauriers et al., “Measuring Actual Learning versus Feeling of
Learning in Response to Being Actively Engaged in the Classroom,”
PNAS 116 (2019): 19251–57.
11 Scott Freeman et al., “Active Learning Increases Student Performance
in Science, Engineering, and Mathematics,”
PNAS 111 (2014): 8410–
15.
12 Jochen I. Menges et al., “The Awestruck Effect: Followers Suppress
Emotion Expression in Response to Charismatic but Not Individually
Considerate Leadership,”
Leadership Quarterly 26 (2015): 626–40.
13 Adam Grant, “The Dark Side of Emotional Intelligence,” The Atlantic,
January 2, 2014, www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2014/01/
the-dark-side‑of‑emotional-intelligence/282720.
14 M. Stains et al., “Anatomy of STEM Teaching in North American
Universities,” Science 359 (2018): 1468–70.
15 Grant Wiggins, “Why Do So Many HS History Teachers Lecture So
Much?,” April 24, 2015, grantwiggins.wordpress.com/2015/04/24/
why‑do‑so‑many‑hs‑history-teachers-lecture‑so‑much.
16 Guido Schwerdt and Amelie C. Wupperman, “Is Traditional
Teaching
Really All That Bad? A Within-Student Between-Subject Approach,”
Economics
of Education Review 30 (2011): 365–79.
17 Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (New York: Basic Books,
1974).
18 Asahina Robert, “The Inquisitive Robert Nozick,” New York Times,
September 20, 1981, www.nytimes.com/1981/09/20/books/theinquisitive-
robert-nozick.html.
19 Felipe De Brigard, “If You Like It, Does It Matter If It’s Real?,”
Philosophical Psychology 23 (2010): 43–57.
20 Ken Gewertz, “Philosopher Nozick Dies at 63,” Harvard
Gazette,
January 17, 2002, news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2002/01/
philosopher-nozick-dies‑at‑63; see also Hilary Putnam et al., “Robert
Nozick: Memorial Minute,” Harvard
Gazette, May 6, 2004, news.
harvard.edu/gazette/story/2004/05/robert-nozick.
21 Joachim Stoeber and Kathleen Otto, “Positive Conceptions of
Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Challenges,” Personality and
Social Psychology Review 10 (2006): 295–319.
22 Dana Harari et al., “Is Perfect Good? A Meta-analysis of Perfectionism
in the Workplace,” Journal of Applied Psychology 103 (2018): 1121–
44.
23 Philip L. Roth et al., “Meta-analyzing the Relationship
between Grades
and Job Performance,” Journal of Applied Psychology 81 (1996):
548–56.
24 Adam Grant, “What Straight‑A Students Get Wrong,” New York Times,
December 8, 2018, www.nytimes.com/2018/12/08/opinion/collegegpa-
career-success.html.
25 Donald W. Mackinnon, “The Nature and Nurture of Creative Talent,”
American Psychologist 17 (1962): 484–95.
26 Karen Arnold, Lives of Promise: What Becomes of High School
Valedictorians (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995).
27 Mike Kaiser, “This Wharton Senior’s Letter Writing Project Gets
Global Attention,” Wharton School, February 17, 2016, www.wharton.
upenn.edu/story/wharton-seniors-letter-writing-project-gets-globalattention.
28 Aloysius Wei Lun Koh, Sze Chi Lee, and Stephen Wee Hun Lim, “The
Learning Benefits of Teaching: A Retrieval Practice Hypothesis,”
Applied Cognitive Psychology 32 (2018): 401–10; Logan Fiorella and
Richard E. Mayer, “The Relative Benefits of Learning by Teaching
and Teaching Expectancy,” Contemporary Educational
Psychology
38 (2013): 281–88; Robert B. Zajonc and Patricia R. Mullally, “Birth
Order: Reconciling Conflicting Effects,” American Psychologist
52 (1997): 685–99; Peter A. Cohen, James A. Kulik, and Chen-Lin
Findings,” American Educational Research Journal 19 (1982): 237–
48.
29 Personal interview with Ron Berger, October 29, 2019; Ron Berger, An
Ethic of Excellence: Building a Culture of Craftsmanship with Students
(Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2003); Ron Berger, Leah Rugen,
and Libby Woodfin, Leaders of Their Own Learning: Transforming
Schools through Student-Engaged Assessment (San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass, 2014).
30 Kirill Fayn et al., “Confused or Curious? Openness/Intellect Predicts
More Positive Interest-Confusion Relations,” Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology 117 (2019): 1016–33.
31 Eleanor Duckworth, The Having of Wonderful Ideas (New York:
Teachers College Press, 2006).
32 Elisabeth Vogl et al., “Surprised-Curious-Confused: Epistemic
Emotions and Knowledge Exploration,” Emotion 20 (2020): 625–41.
33 Ron Berger, “Critique and Feedback — The Story of Austin’s
Butterfly,” December 8, 2012, www.youtube.com/watch? v= hqh1MR
WZjms.
הערות לפרק 10
1 Kurt Vonnegut, Player Piano (New York: Dial Press, 1952/2006).
2 Tony Reichhardt, “The Spacewalk That Almost Killed Him,” Air &
Space Magazine, May 2014, www.airspacemag.com/space/spacewalkalmost-
killed-him-180950135/?all.
3 Matej Černe et al., “What Goes Around Comes Around: Knowledge
Hiding, Perceived Motivational Climate, and Creativity,” Academy of
Management Journal 57 (2014): 172–92; Markus Baer and Michael
Frese, “Innovation
Is Not Enough: Climates for Initiative and
Psychological Safety, Process Innovations,
and Firm Performance,”
Journal of Organizational Behavior 24 (2003): 45–68.
4 Anita L. Tucker and Amy C. Edmondson, “Why Hospitals Don’t
Learn from Failures: Organizational and Psychological Dynamics That
Inhibit System Change,” California Management Review 45 (2003):
55–72; Amy C. Edmondson, “Learning from Mistakes Is Easier Said
Than Done: Group and Organizational Influences on the Detection and
Correction of Human Error,” Journal of Applied Behavioral Science
40 (1996): 5–28.
5 William A. Kahn, “Psychological Conditions of Personal Engagement
and Disengagement at Work,” Academy of Management Journal 33
(1990): 692–724.
6 Julia Rozovsky, “The Five Keys to a Successful
Google Team,”
re:Work, November 17, 2015, rework.withgoogle.com/blog/fivekeys‑to‑a‑successful-
google-team.
7 Amy C. Edmondson, “How Fearless Organizations Succeed,”
strategy+business, November 14, 2018, www.strategy-business.com/
article/How-Fearless-Organizations-Succeed.
8 Amy Edmondson, “Psychological Safety and Learning Behavior in
Work Teams,” Administrative Science Quarterly 44 (1999): 350–83.
9 Paul W. Mulvey, John F. Veiga, and Priscilla M. Elsass, “When
Teammates Raise a White Flag,” Academy of Management Perspectives
10 (1996): 40–49.
10 Howard Berkes, “30 Years after Explosion, Challenger Engineer
Still Blames Himself,” NPR, January 28, 2016, www.npr.org/
sections/thetwo-way/2016/01/28/464744781/30‑years-after-disasterchallenger-
engineer-still-blames-himself.
11 Joel Bach, “Engineer Sounded Warnings for Columbia,” ABC News,
January 7, 2006, abcnews.go.com/Technology/story? id= 97600&
page= 1.
12 Personal interview with Ellen Ochoa, December 12, 2019.
13 Personal interview with Chris Hansen, November 12, 2019.
14 Constantinos G. V. Coutifaris and Adam M. Grant, “Taking Your
Team Behind the Curtain: The Effects of Leader Feedback-Sharing,
Feedback-Seeking, and Humility on Team Psychological Safety Over
Time” (working paper, 2020).
15 Wharton Follies, “Mean Reviews: Professor
Edition,” March 22,
2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=COOaEVSu6ms& t=3s.
16 Celia Moore et al., “The Advantage of Being Oneself: The Role of
Applicant Self-Verification in Organizational Hiring Decisions,”
Journal of Applied Psychology
102 (2017): 1493–513.
17 Kerry Roberts Gibson, Dana Harari, and Jennifer Carson Marr, “When
Sharing Hurts: How and Why Self-Disclosing Weakness Undermines
the Task-Oriented Relationships of Higher-Status Disclosers,”
Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 144 (2018):
25–43.
18 Itamar Simonson and Barry M. Staw, “Deescalation Strategies: A
Comparison of Techniques for Reducing Commitment to Losing
Courses of Action,” Journal of Applied Psychology 77 (1992): 419–26;
Jennifer S. Lerner and Philip E. Tetlock, “Accounting for the Effects
of Accountability,” Psychological Bulletin 125 (1999): 255–75.
19 Amy C. Edmondson, “The Competitive Imperative of Learning,”
Harvard Business Review, July-August 2008, hbr.org/2008/07/thecompetitive-
imperative‑of‑learning.
20 Jeff Bezos, “2016 Letter to Shareholders,” www.sec.gov/Archives/
edgar/data/1018724/000119312517120198/d373368dex991.htm.
21 Barry M. Staw, Sigal G. Barsade, and Kenneth W. Koput, “Escalation
at the Credit Window: A Longitudinal Study of Bank Executives’
Recognition and Write Off of Problem Loans,” Journal of Applied
Psychology 82 (1997): 130–42.
הערות לפרק 11
1 Jack Handey, “My First Day in Hell,” New Yorker, October 23, 2006,
www.newyorker.com/magazine/2006/10/30/my‑first-day‑in‑hell.
2 William B. Swann Jr. and Peter J. Rentfrow, “Blirtatiousness:
Cognitive,
Behavioral, and Physiological Consequences of Rapid Responding,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001): 1160–75.
3 Locke and Latham, “Building a Practically Useful Theory.”
4 Peter M. Gollwitzer, “Implementation Intentions: Strong Effects of
Simple Plans,” American Psychologist 54 (1999): 493–503.
5 James Y. Shah and Arie W. Kruglanski, “Forgetting All Else: On
the Antecedents and Consequences of Goal Shielding,” Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 83 (2002): 1261–80.
6 Barry M. Staw and Jerry Ross, “Understanding Behavior in Escalation
Situations,” Science 246 (1989): 216–20.
7 Dustin J. Sleesman et al., “Putting Escalation of Commitment in
Context: A Multilevel Review and Analysis,” Academy of Management
Annals 12 (2018): 178–207.
8 Colin F. Camerer and Roberto A. Weber, “The Econometrics
and Behavioral Economics of Escalation of Commitment: A Reexamination
of Staw and Hoang’s NBA Data,” Journal of Economic
Behavior & Organization 39 (1999): 59–82.
9 Glen Whyte, “Escalating Commitment in Individual and Group
Decision Making: A Prospect Theory Approach,” Organizational
Behavior and Human Decision Processes 54 (1993): 430–55.
10 Joel Brockner, “The Escalation of Commitment to a Failing Course
of Action: Toward Theoretical Progress,” Academy of Management
Review 17 (1992): 39–61.
11 Dustin J. Sleesman et al., “Cleaning Up the Big Muddy: A Metaanalytic
Review of the Determinants of Escalation of Commitment,”
Academy of Management Journal 55 (2012): 541–62.
12 Jon M. Jachimowicz et al., “Why Grit Requires Perseverance and
Passion to Positively Predict Performance,” PNAS 115 (2018): 9980–
85; Angela Duckworth
and James J. Gross, “Self-Control and Grit:
Related but Separable Determinants of Success,” Current Directions
in Psychological Science 23 (2014): 319–25.
13 Larbi Alaoui and Christian Fons-Rosen, “Know When to Fold ’Em:
The Grit Factor,” Universitat Pompeu Fabra: Barcela GSE Working
Paper Series (2018).
14 Gale M. Lucas et al., “When the Going Gets Tough: Grit Predicts Costly
Perseverance,” Journal of Research in Personality 59 (2015): 15–22;
see also Henry Moon, “The Two Faces of Conscientiousness: Duty
and Achievement Striving
in Escalation of Commitment Dilemmas,”
Journal of Applied Psychology 86 (2001): 533–40.
15 Lee Crust, Christian Swann, and Jacquelyn Allen-Collinson, “The Thin
Line: A Phenomenological Study of Mental Toughness and Decision
Making in Elite High-Altitude Mountaineers,” Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology
38 (2016): 598–611.
16 Wim Meeus et al., “Patterns of Adolescent Identity Development:
Review of Literature and Longitudinal Analysis,” Developmental
Review 19 (1999): 419–61.
17 Otilia Obodaru, “The Self Not Taken: How Alternative
Selves Develop and How They Influence Our Professional Lives,” Academy
of Management
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18 Michelle Obama, Becoming (New York: Crown, 2018).
19 Shoshana R. Dobrow, “Dynamics of Callings: A Longitudinal Study of
Musicians,” Journal of Organizational Behavior 34 (2013): 431–52.
20 Justin M. Berg, Adam M. Grant, and Victoria Johnson, “When Callings
Are Calling: Crafting Work and Leisure in Pursuit of Unanswered
Occupational Callings,” Organization Science 21 (2010): 973–94.
21 Chris Rock, Tamborine, directed by Bo Burnham, Netflix, 2018.
22 Ryan F. Lei et al., “Children Lose Confidence in Their Potential to ‘Be
Scientists,’ but Not in Their Capacity to ‘Do Science,’ ” Developmental
Science 22 (2019): e12837.
23 Marjorie Rhodes, Amanda Cardarelli, and Sarah-Jane Leslie, “Asking
Young Children to ‘Do Science’ Instead of ‘Be Scientists’ Increases
Science Engagement in a Randomized Field Experiment,” PNAS 117
(2020): 9808–14.
24 Alison Doyle, “How Often Do People Change Jobs during a Lifetime?,”
The Balance Careers, June 15, 2020, www.thebalancecareers.com/
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25 Shoshana R. Dobrow and Jennifer Tosti-Kharas, “Listen to Your
Heart? Calling and Receptivity to Career Advice,” Journal of Career
Assessment 20 (2012): 264–80.
26 Ian McGregor et al., “Compensatory Conviction in the Face of Personal
Uncertainty: Going to Extremes and Being Oneself,” Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology 80 (2001): 472–88.
27 Ofer Malamud, “Breadth Versus Depth: The Timing of Specialization
in Higher Education,” Labour 24 (2010): 359–90.
28 Herminia Ibarra, Working Identity: Unconventional Strategies for
Reinventing Your Career (Boston: Harvard Business School Press,
2003).
29 Herminia Ibarra, “Provisional Selves: Experimenting with Image and
הערות | 313
Identity in Professional Adaptation,” Administrative Science Quarterly
44 (1999): 764–91.
30 Iris B. Mauss et al., “Can Seeking Happiness Make People Unhappy?
Paradoxical Effects of Valuing Happiness,” Emotion 11 (2011): 807–
15.
31 Brett Q. Ford et al., “Desperately Seeking Happiness: Valuing
Happiness Is Associated with Symptoms and Diagnosis of
Depression,” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 33 (2014):
890–905.
32 Lucy McGuirk et al., “Does a Culture of Happiness Increase
Rumination Over Failure?,” Emotion 18 (2018): 755–64.
33 Ed Diener, Ed Sandvik, and William Pavot, “Happiness Is the
Frequency, Not the Intensity, of Positive versus Negative Affect,”
in Subjective Well-Being: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, ed. Fritz
Strack, Michael Argyle, and Norbert Schwartz (New York: Pergamon,
1991).
34 Barbara L. Fredrickson et al., “A Functional Genomic
Perspective
on Human Well-Being,” PNAS 110 (2013): 13684–89; Emily Esfahani
Smith, “Meaning Is Healthier Than Happiness,” The Atlantic,
August 1, 2013, www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/08/
meaning‑is‑healthier-than-happiness/278250.
35 Jon M. Jachimowicz et al., “Igniting Passion from Within: How Lay
Beliefs Guide the Pursuit of Work Passion and Influence Turnover,”
PsyArXiv 10.31234/osf.io/qj6y9, last revised July 2, 2018, https://
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36 Brett Q. Ford et al., “Culture Shapes Whether the Pursuit of Happiness
Predicts Higher or Lower Well-Being,” Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General 144 (2015): 1053–62.
37 Saturday Night Live, season 44, episode 19, “Adam Sandler,” May 4,
2019, NBC.
38 Elizabeth W. Dunn, Timothy D. Wilson, and Daniel T. Gilbert,
“Location, Location, Location: The Misprediction of Satisfaction
in
Housing Lotteries,” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29
(2003): 1421–32; Kent C. H. Lam et al., “Cultural Differences in
Affective Forecasting: The Role of Focalism,” Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin 31 (2005): 1296–309.
39 Ernest Hemingway, The Sun Also Rises (New York: Scribner,
1926/2014).
40 Kennon M. Sheldon and Sonja Lyubomirsky, “Achieving
Sustainable
Gains in Happiness: Change Your Actions, Not Your Circumstances,”
Journal of Happiness Studies 7 (2006): 55–86; Kennon M.
Sheldon and Sonja Lyubomirsky, “Change Your Actions, Not Your
Circumstances: An Experimental Test of the Sustainable Happiness
Model,” in Happiness, Economics, and Politics: Towards a Multidisciplinary
Approach, ed. Amitava Krishna Dutt and Benjamin
Radcliff (Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar, 2009).
41 Jane E. Dutton and Belle Rose Ragins, Exploring Positive Relationships
at Work: Building a Theoretical and Research Foundation (Mahwah,
NJ: Erlbaum,
2007).
42 Paul A. O’Keefe, Carol S. Dweck, and Gregory
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